humans are unique, rational, and driven by self-interest
Every individual seeks:
self-realisation – discovering our ‘true’ self, free of society’s constraints
self-determination – meritocracy: masters of our own fate, realities of our lives are attributed to our own efforts and achievements
self-fulfilment – equality of opportunity: making the most of our natural rights/talents
Denial of these leaves people demoralised, de-energised
Liberal feminists like Mary Wollstonecraft and Betty Friedan argued that both male and female individuals have such desires of self-fulfilment and self-determination
(classical) ‘negative’ liberty: John Locke’s idea that of a minimal state that allows for freedom of the person
historical context: Locke vs Arbitrary Power of an absolute monarch
(modern) ‘positive’ liberty: Thomas Hill Green’s idea of an ‘enabling’ state, “help those who cannot help themselves”
Rational
contrasts with Hobbes’ pessimistic view
egotism != conflict, because reason makes us respect others’ pursuit of self-realisation (if we don’t, others won’t respect us)
Progressive
human nature isn’t fixed – improves via knowledge, education, understanding
developmental individualism (Mill) – focus on what individuals could become, not just are; underpins Mill’s emphasis on education
links to Bentham’s utilitarianism, redefined by Mill: “better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied”
Optimistic
rejects Original Sin; believes rational discussion solves problems
“Yes We Can” (Obama 2008) as an example of liberal optimism – see Examples of Liberalism
Comparing ideas: optimistic/rational view shared with socialism, anarchism; rejected by traditional conservatism (philosophy of imperfection); New Right conservatism shares the egotistical view but not socialism, which stresses fraternity/community
View of society
Natural society
: society is peaceful, voluntary interaction of multiple individuals
Locke: society is not dependent upon existence of a state
natural society was not Hobbes’s ‘nasty, brutish and short’ but agreeable and generally efficient
Individualistic society
From egotistical human nature: a legitimate society must maximise individuals who can pursue self-realisation/self-determination
Wollstonecraft, Friedan: Patriarchal, male-dominated society conflicted with women’s quest for self-determinism
Tolerant society
‘I diapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.’
John Stuart Mill: state should tolrate all actions and opinions unless violating the harm principle
harm principle: views and actions we dislike should still be tolerated, as long as they do not harm the liberty of others
e.g. inciting violence
Mill: consensus via education education as part of developmental individualism (not what you are, what you can become)
View of the economy
Economic liberalism/capitalism
capitalism: working towards profit
the right to (accumulate) property allows us to be free
capitalism is an expression of freedom
Adam Smith (classical): Wealth of Nations (1776), free market
negative liberty: the state should not be involved in the economy
no barriers to trade
‘invisible hand’ of the market
Keynes (modern): General Theory of Employment (1936)
markets are too volatile – written in context of Great Depression
positive liberty: state has responsibility to manage the markets to sustain employment
Mill: unequal outcomes are consistent with a meritocracy
Rawls: liberals should only defend inequality of outcome if accompanied by equality of opportunity
Disagreement of which type of capitalism is best for liberty and prosperity
19th century: Mill favours laissez-faire
Late 20th century: Rawls favours Keynesian
View of the state: foundations
Rejects anarchism – unlike anarcho-capitalism, liberalism thinks self-realisation is best served by a state, not its abolition
but not just any state – must meet conditions so individuals aren’t worse off than in the state of nature
Rejects pre-Enlightenment/traditional states: divine right of kings, monarchical absolutism, arbitrary power, hereditary power
morally illegitimate (no respect for natural rights) + intellectually illegitimate (affront to rationality)
Contractual state: ‘government by consent’ (Locke) – legitimacy only if the governed agree to be governed
people are citizens, not subjects; “government should always be the servant, not master, of the people”
social contract: individuals only leave the state of nature for guaranteed advantages; if those stop, government can be dissolved (US Declaration of Independence 1776, “Right of the People to alter or to abolish”)
View of the state: objectives
Promote natural rights (life, liberty, property, pursuit of happiness – US Declaration of Independence)
Rawls: liberalism = ‘state-sponsored individualism’ vs anarchist Max Stirner’s ‘stateless individualism’
state offers faster/fairer resolution than the state of nature (e.g. impartial courts)
Equality of opportunity, not outcome
inequality of outcome = inevitable/desirable result of individual diversity (Rawls), rewards effort not heredity
Promote tolerance
classical liberals (Mill): education
modern liberals (T.H. Green): state-provided universal education
Friedan: state should outlaw racial/sexual discrimination, embed tolerance via bodies like the UK’s Equality and Human Rights Commission
Comparing ideas: socialists want the state to also secure equality of outcome/solidarity; conservatives prioritise order/safety, though New Right shares the liberty focus
View of the state: structures and mechanisms
Constitutional (limited) state: power limited by preconditions + procedures of government, set out in a constitution (rule book) – cf. US Founding Fathers, Philadelphia Convention 1787
foundational equality: same legal/political rights for all, rule of law applies regardless of class/status
Fragmented state: Locke – power should be scattered, not concentrated (reaction to monarchy)
Lord Acton: “power tends to corrupt… absolute power corrupts absolutely”
mechanisms: separation of powers, bicameral legislature, Bill of Rights, Supreme Court, federalism – see US Constitution
Representative state: derives power from citizens, not divine right
“no taxation without representation” (American colonists)
Friedan: liberals reject the conservative paternalistic state
Meritocratic state: earned not inherited authority
Paine on aristocratic rule: “beyond equity, beyond reason and most certainly beyond wisdom”
Democratic state? – contested
classical liberals wary of universal suffrage: Locke (property qualification), Mill (feared ‘uneducated’ vote → intolerance, tyranny of the majority, loss of individuality)
modern liberals (Friedan, Rawls) accept universal suffrage but still favour representative over direct democracy (referendums seen as majoritarian, risk to minority rights)
Debate: does liberalism ‘trust the people’?
yes: self-determination, consent, dislike of concentrated power, belief in rational electors, Mill’s ‘educative’ democracy
no: natural rights are non-negotiable regardless of vote results; hence constitutional checks (Bill of Rights, Supreme Court) to constrain elected majorities
Judicial supremacy: unelected courts can veto elected governments where policy clashes with a Bill of Rights
liberals distrust parliamentary sovereignty – fear ‘elective dictatorship’ / populist majorities overriding natural rights